Dispositional Theory

Dispositional theory within organizations can perceived through the facets of the Five Factor model of dispositional personality traits, trait theories and through the assumption of individual characteristics and attitudes. Dispositional personality traits of the Five Factor Model and trait theories can be viewed through perceptions of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience and the Sixteen Personality Factors of traits. Each dispositional personality focuses on characteristic patterns of thinking, behaving, and feeling. Dispositional approach of assuming individual characteristics and attitudes focuses on motivational characteristics that varies according to an individual's needs and motives.

Introduction

            Dispositional theory assumes that personality is made up of a set of steady characteristics that influence behavior. These characteristics have sometimes been described as personality types but more often as traits or needs. Dispositional theory assumes individuals stability and long -lasting dispositions to display certain characteristics, temperaments, and emotions. This theory assumes diverse personality traits that can be measured, analyzed, and evaluated. Dispositional theory associate with the field of Industrial and Organizational psychology through situational influences, individual differences, job satisfaction, and managerial competence. This document will briefly discuss Dispositional theory, the rationale, and application of the theory.

Theory

Dispositions can vary according to situations and can explain why people act in certain ways in settings. Individuals have different sets of dispositions that vary in strengths and implies unique patterns. Dispositional approach assume various traits, which are continuing qualities that individuals possess in different amounts. Traits can be viewed through theorist Gordon Allport (1897-1967), Raymond Cattell (1905-1998), and Hans J. Eysenck (1916-1997). Trait theory of Gordon Allport assumed three different kinds of traits: Central traits, characteristics that organize and control behavior;  most people possess about five to ten central traits that focus on the most outstanding characteristics of an individual’s life. Secondary traits, characteristics that are more specific to certain situations and control far less behavior; these traits are more easily modified than central traits. Cardinal traits, which are dispositions that are so general and pervasive that they govern virtually everything a person does (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2013). These traits cannot be hidden and are the core of an individual’s life. Characteristics of cardinal traits consist of chauvinistic, narcissistic, and sadistic.

Allport theory assume personal dispositions are dynamic in the sense that they have motivational power considered as motivational dispositions (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2013). Motivational dispositions are received through motivational concepts of basic needs and drives. These motivational dispositions are strongly felt but are not as intensely experienced as stylistic dispositions. Stylistic dispositions consist of motivational power, however stylistic disposition guides action and motivational disposition initiate action. Stylistic disposition reflects how an individual is motivated to convey his or her personal disposition (Feist, Feist, and Roberts, 2013).

Raymond Cattell's trait theory assume three sources that are required for any analysis of the dimensions of personality. The three sources are L-data: Gathered from one's life records, observations made by others and self reports. Q-data: information gathered from questionnaires and interviews. Tdata: information obtained from objective testing situations, measures performance and challenges individual’s maximum performance. Accordingly, daily traits "surface traits" and high order, deep traits, “source traits”(Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2013). Cattell also focused on traits associated with temperament, motivation, and ability. Temperament focus on the behavioral actions of an individual, motivation focus on perceptions of why an individual behaves, and ability focus on how far or how fast one can perform (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2013).

Cattell view of personality is the manner in which individuals behave in specific situations. It is possible to infer personality traits based on a set of behaviors and it is possible to predict how a person would behave in a certain situation by having information about their personality (Primi, Ferreira-Rodrigues, & Carvalho, 2014). Cattell assumed that there is a continuum of personality traits.  He analyzed and comprised an instrument that consisted of 16 traits known as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) that describes some personality characteristics (Primi, Ferreira-Rodrigues, & Carvalho, 2014). The personality traits assessed in the instrument are fairly constant, and mood swings, or situational changes in which individuals go through at some point in their lives (Primi, Ferreira-Rodrigues, & Carvalho, 2014). The 16PF includes traits as described, abstractness -visionary or reasonable; apprehension-anxious or confident; dominance-dominant or apathetic; emotional stability-relaxed or excitable; liveliness-passionate or sincere; openness to change-permissive or traditions; perfectionism-obsessive or unconcerned; privateness -pompous or moderate; reasoning -complex or objective; rule consciousness-principled or improper; self-reliance  -leader versus follower; sensitivity -perceptive or indifferent; social boldness -spontaneous or careful; tension -consumed or constrained; vigilance -skeptical or convinced; and warmth -sympathetic or uncaring.

Eysenck focused on organizational traits that could be grouped under three dimensions Extraversion/Introversion (E), Neuroticism/Stability (N), and Psychoticism/Superego Function (P). These dimensions characterize individuals based on their orientation toward stimulations from specific environments and measures emotional stability-instability. Eysenck's trait theory groups the Five Factor Model of personality that can be integrated to capture the full complexity of human personality.

Extraversion/Introversion characterizes individuals based on orientation toward external sources of stimulations from the environment versus an orientation inward at the opposite extreme. Extraverts are characterized primarily by sociability and impulsiveness but also liveliness, quick-wittedness, and optimism. Introverts are characterized by traits opposite those of extraverts. The can be passive, unsociable, careful, reserved, thoughtful, and controlled (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2013). Neuroticism/Stability has a strong hereditary component, through evidence of genetic basis for such neurotic traits as anxiety, hysteria, and obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). Individuals of neuroticism often overreact emotionally and have difficulty returning to a normal state after emotional arousal. Psychoticism includes a disposition of psychosis and a degree of sociopathy. Individuals of psychoticism are often impulsive, hostile, aggressive, and antisocial. Psychoticism have a high predisposition to succumb to stress and develop a psychotic illness (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2013).

Rationale

The rationale in choosing Dispositional Theory was the assumptions of dispositional approach assumes two approaches, such as stability of personality and differences between individuals. Stability of personality assumes that people display consistency in their actions, thoughts, and feelings between situations and over time. Differences between individuals assumes composition of dispositions varies from person to person. Individual personality perceives a pattern of dispositions which forms a variations of characteristics. Through dispositional theory, organizational traits can be grouped under facets of the Five Factor model. The Five Factor model characterizes people according to his or her orientation toward sources of stimulations depending on the environment (work, social, et. al.). Through the Five Factor theory, dispositional traits perceives behavior as complex and influenced by many traits.

Dispositional theory associates with the field of Industrial and Organizational psychology and the rationale of connecting this theory is its view of various personality traits, motivational perspectives, and the connection with job satisfaction and managerial competence. Personality traits within organizations are diverse and can be viewed through dispositional theory. Dispositional theory assumes diverse characteristic traits of individuals and associates them with the perspectives of personal dispositions assumed.

Dispositional theory assumes personality and characteristic traits originates from internal an internal state and through dispositional personality traits of the Five Factor model. IO psychologist can utilized disposition theory by measuring and evaluating employee behaviors and attitudes within the organization. The rationale of dispositional theory and IO psychology is that each equally analyzes the behavioral actions of the organization, associates, and employees. Through use of the Five Factor model, IO psychologist can measure employee personalities and assume the diverse characteristics of individuals, such as narcissistic, passive, stable, likeability, and other characteristics.

Dispositional theory help explore individual and group personalities within organizations. Personal dispositions within the organization assumes how individuals function in his or her social surroundings, connect with others and interact. Dispositions allow for a way to evaluate personality through processes of assessments within the organization. Dispositional theory distinguishes common traits, which permit inter-individual comparisons, personal dispositions, which are peculiar to the individual. Dispositional theories focus on trait theories that is important in within the field of IO psychology. Trait theories can be applied to identifying leadership skills within organizations. Traits associated with leadership may include an individual's drive for responsibility, persistence in pursuit of goals, risk taking, self-confidence, and the ability to influence others.

Application

Dispositional theories can be applied to many facets of organizational structures. Organizations and employees personal dispositions affect how the organization is successful, job satisfaction, customer satisfaction, and other aspects of organizational culture. IO psychologist apply dispositional theories within organizations to employee specific characteristics and traits within an organization. IO psychologist evaluate and provide assessments to acquire leadership potential, positive and negative dispositions, and behavioral tactics of employees. Applications of dispositional theory allow for a more concise and clearer comprehension of characteristics and personality traits within organizations.

The application of dispositional theory and IO psychology aids in measuring, observing, and assessing diverse characteristics, personalities, traits, motivation, and behavioral actions. IO psychologist utilizes dispositional theory to observe, evaluate, and assess individuals within the organization to determine many facets of employment, such as training, promotion, leadership, job satisfaction, and managerial competence. Personal dispositional are variables that are internal to an individual, in which he or she bring with them from situation to situation, from one organization to another. These dispositions are what makes up an individual characteristics and personality within an organization. The application of personal dispositions are associated with an individual's values, attitudes, skills, abilities, self-concept, and aptitude. IO psychologist application of dispositions within organizations seek out to discover individual reasons of motivation and attitudes, such as what motivates an individual to behave in a specific manner and his or her choice process. An individual's motivation can influence an individual's attitude toward others, objects, and situations.

IO psychologist help organizations seek out leaders internally and externally that would be beneficial to the organization's growth. IO psychology apply methods of dispositional theory to gather characteristics and personality traits of leadership. Leadership is a way to improve personal, social, and professional characteristics (Northouse, 2012). Organizations seek out individuals with leadership skills that could be an asset to their organization and improve their organizational structure. Leadership can be viewed as a combination of traits or characteristics that enable individuals to induce others to accomplish tasks (Northouse, 2012). Leadership traits or characteristics assume individuals have special innate or inborn qualities that make them leaders and include unique factors associated with personality features of extraversion, openness to experience, and agreeableness and characteristics of intelligence, quick wittedness, and fluency (Northouse, 2012). The trait approach to apply dispositional theory provides valuable information about leadership. It can be applied by individuals at all levels and in all types of organizations (Piccolo et. al., 2012). Trait approach does not provide a definitive set of traits, however it does provide direction regarding which traits are good to have if one aspires to a leadership position (Piccolo et. al., 2012). Personality tests and other similar questionnaires help gain insight into associating traits with leadership perspectives and pinpoints individuals strengths and weaknesses in regards to leadership (Piccolo et. al., 2012).

            Dispositional theory application to job satisfaction within organizations. Applying dispositional theory to acquire job satisfaction of employees is perceived through the Five Factor model. The Five Factor model of dispositional personality traits characterize independent variables, such as Neuroticism, poor emotional adjustment, anxiety, insecurity, and hostility; Extraversion, sociable, active, and experience positivity; Openness to Experience, nonconforming and eccentric; Agreeableness, trusting, caring, and gentle; and Conscientiousness, achievement and dependability (Tziner et. al., 2008). The perspective of job satisfaction within an organization, dispositional approach view personality traits as an influence on job satisfaction. The dispositional approach of the Five Factor model assumes that a combination of traits, such as agreeableness and conscientiousness can lead to job satisfaction. However a combination of neuroticism and conscientiousness can lead to facets of anxiety and stress of trying to overachieve (Tziner et. al., 2008).

Job satisfaction of the Five Factor model present positive and negative perceptions of individual characteristics (Funder, 2010). Through combinations of personality traits, perceptions concluded that most are related to job satisfaction without the contention of neuroticism (Sirgy, 2012). The Five Factor closely describe facets of characteristics that connect to job satisfaction and hold various influences as factors satisfaction and stability within organizations (Judge, Heller, & Mount, 2002). Organizations can mold an individual's perceptions through socialization and group influence. Organizations are substantial on an individual's attitude and behaviors (Staw & Cohen-Charash, 2005). According to Staw and Cohen-Charash, (2005) job satisfaction can be viewed in various processing steps according to how individual differences influence attitude and personality variables. Dispositional approaches assume organizations contribute equally to individual attitude and behavioral actions according to an individual's responsibilities, pay rate, and social standings.  

Dispositional theory can be applied to an organization's turnover intention. Personal dispositions are vital to the assessment of work related satisfaction and is associated how individuals approach and interpret work life. Organizational turnover intention is determined through positive and negative dispositional roles of job satisfaction and commitment. An employee's positive disposition is viewed as him or her are less likely to leave the job, an employee has the tendency to experience positive emotions and show higher commitment to the organization he or she is employed (Chiu & Francesco, 2003). Employees that possess negative dispositions are more likely dissatisfied with current job and are likely to quit, an employee who is unhappy will seek change in organizations and may showed facets of withdrawal within the current organization (Chiu & Francesco, 2003).  Employee dispositions of work-related outcomes of job satisfaction and commitment mediate the effects of personal dispositions on turnover intention (Chiu & Francesco, 2003).  Dispositions are related to the frequency and intensity of emotions and can influence emotional reactions to the environmental situations that is associated with commitment. Employees committed to his or her organizations evaluate the organizational environment more favorably than those with low commitment (Chiu & Francesco, 2003).

Many organizations focus on customer satisfaction and employee behavior. Dispositional theory can be utilized to determine the levels of customer satisfaction and formation of employee attitudes and job satisfaction (Burns & Bowling, 2010). Dispositions and customer perceptions involve the work tasks of employees and applied customer service tactics that perceive favorable quality service (Burns & Bowling, 2010). Applications of dispositional theories applied to customer behavior predict outcomes of a customer's buying intentions, positive word of mouth behavior, and committed relationship between customer and organization. Through research, customer satisfaction is linked to behavioral outcomes perceived by the personal dispositions focused on situational influences (Burns & Bowling, 2010). Employee’s behaviors can be greatly affected by the dispositions of customers that are encountered. Employees with positive dispositions of sociability, liveliness, and vigor, account for high customer satisfaction and gratification. Employees with negative dispositions of impolite, intrusive, and abrupt, account for high poor customer satisfaction and disappointment.

            Through managerial concepts of competence and coping with change, dispositional theory can be applied to help further understand the traits of the managerial perceptions of leadership, control, tolerance, and risk. Organizational changes can contribute to factors of stress, anxiety, and concern through perceptions of possible job loss, cutbacks, and threatens an individual's psychological well-being (Judge et. al., 1999). Organizational changes are affected by an individual's schemata, representing knowledge structures of change in characteristics and situational influences (Judge et. al., 1999). Dispositional theories emphasize personality variables associated with facets of traits associated with openness to experience, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Openness to experience perceives intelligence, perceptiveness, and tolerance to the process of change within organizations (Judge et. al., 1999). Neuroticism portrays forms of anxiety, stress, and overreaction to the process of change within the organization. Psychoticism reflects high perceptions of impulsive and hostile behaviors, and have a predisposition to develop psychotic illnesses (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2013).   

Conclusion

Dispositional theories are a combination of several thoughts about human personality. The dispositional approach focuses on the predisposition to experience related to behavior over a period of time. Accordingly, this approach assumes various concepts of dispositional personality traits, characteristics, motivations, and attitudes that may originate from an individual internal state. Dispositional approach can be applied to many factors of organizational structures, such as job satisfaction, leadership, customer satisfaction, and managerial and employee concepts of competence and change. These factors can be perceived through the Five Factor Model of dispositional personality traits, trait theories and the assumptions of characteristics and attitudes. Each perception conceives a notion of dispositional approach to personality variables and individual differences.

References

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